Postcolonial Literature l Post-colonial Literature Definition l Origin of Colonialism l Postcolonial Issues l Famous Postcolonial Authors

Present Day Britain

Introduction of Postcolonialism:

In order to understand how the term "postcolonialism" has been utilized in literary criticism since the late 1980s, it's important to look at its development. Various commentators use the term in both the surnames and unhyphenated versions when discussing the same subjects of interest. 

Origin of Colonialism:

Colonization is a term that originated in the period of Roman dominations, and it refers to Romans who moved to other countries yet maintained their citizenship.

Key highlights:

Introduction of Postcolonialism:

Origin of Colonialism

Who used the Postcolonial Period

Post-colonial Literature Definition

Postcolonial Issues

Imperialism and Colonialism

Role of Commonwealth in Colonial Rule

Famous Postcolonial Authors

Conclusion

Who used the Postcolonial Period?

The post-colonial period was first used by political analysts and businessmen, but authors and others started to use the term in a wide sociocultural framework in the late 1970s. Unhyphenated implies a preference for literary theory and the investigation of many narratives at a turning point of racism, gender, religion, and migration vs the improved version of the term.

Gender, Religion

Post-colonial Literature Definition:

''The kind of literature that is written in Colonial age is called Postcolonial Literature''

People from formerly colonized nations write in postcolonial literature. It explains the role of literature in supporting and opposing cultural imperialism.

Postcolonial Issues:

In terms of a postmodern perspective, postcolonialism may be described as a study of the effects of colonization on both the community scale of ex-colonial societies and on a worldwide scale. 

Sex, Racism, Religion

Often, postcolonialism involves issues of sex, racism, religion, and geography, as well as response to European imperial narratives in the social sciences and humanities. 

Imperialism and Colonialism:

A distinction must be made: Imperialism refers to the creation of financial and political control, while colonialism refers to the physical control of some other state. The term's meaning includes both imperialism and colonialism, as well as the post-colonial age. In the west, postmodern critics are greatly concerned about the minority communities of African American people, British Asians, and African Caribbeans, as well as Aborigines in Canada and Australia. It is possible to apply postcolonialism in a wide variety of situations, recognizing epoch-defining configurations, historical transitions, and a socio-cultural space. 

Role of Commonwealth in Colonial Rule:

It is the kind of literature written in English by people from the Commonwealth.  The United Kingdom as a whole is known as the Commonwealth of Nations.  

Commonwealth

The Commonwealth is a group of 54 nations that were part of the British Empire at one time. Those nations that were ruled by the British, known as the Commonwealth, are the focus of Literature And culture. British, Irish, and American authors authoring in the Written English. 

Famous Postcolonial Authors:

Following are the famous writers of the Postcolonial age; 

Edward Said:

Edward Said's Orientalism (1978). Said believed that the knowledge developed by eastern academics and how it was used had a real effect on the colonial power. The creation of postcolonial studies, however, must be regarded as a long-term activity rather than a sequence of events, with the basic principles of this development emerging from a wide range of sources, some of which had nothing to do with colonialism at all, and others of which did. Many factors, along with the development of emerging independent nations, their impact on global politics, the evaluation of Western rationalism and its apparent participation with imperial expansion, and the debates over empiricism and culturalism in social science from the 1960s may be traced back. In order to write postcolonial literature, writers draw on a wide range of influences and references. 

Famous works of Edward Said:

• Orientalism (1978)
• The question of Palestine (1979)
• Covering Islam (1981)
• Culture and Imperialism (1993)
• Out of Place: A Memoir (1999)
• The Edward Said reader (2000)
• Parallels and Paradoxes (2002)
• Culture and Resistance (2003)

Toni Morrison:

Chloe Anthony Wofford Morrison, better known as Toni Morrison, was an American novelist. Her first novel, The Bluest Eye, was released in 1970. Song of Solomon, which she and her spouse co-wrote, won the National Book Critics Circle Award, placing her on the market.

Famous works of Toni Morrison:

• The Bluest Eye (1970)
• Sula (1973)
• Song of Solomon (1977)
• Beloved (1987)
• Playing in the Dark (1992)

 Arundhati Roy:

"The God of Small Things" was awarded the Man Booker Prize for Fiction in 1997 and has since gone on to become the best-selling book by an Indian writer who had not given set outside of India. In addition, she is an advocate for human rights and the preservation of the natural world. ”

Famous works of Arundhati Roy:

• The God of Small Things
• My Seditious Heart
• The end of imagination
• Walking with the Comrades
• The cost of living
• Azadi

Chinua Achebe:

One of the most influential personalities in modern African literature is Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe. One of his most well-read and examined works is Thing Fall Apart.

Chinua Achebe Famous works:

• Things Fall Apart (1958) 
• A Man of the People (1966) 
• Arrow of God (1964) 
• Hopes and Impediments (1988)
• Anthills of the Savannah (1987)
• No Longer at Ease (1960) 
• Morning Yet on Creation Day (1975)
• Home and Exile (2000)

John Maxwell Coetzee:

Author, essayist, linguist, and interpreter John Maxwell Coetzee received the 2003 Nobel Prize in Literature. He is recognized by many as one of the best writers to have ever written in the English language.

Famous works of John Maxwell Coetzee

• Age of Iron (1990)
• The Master of Petersburg (1994)
• Disgrace (1999)
• Life & Times of Michael K  (1983)
• Foe (1986)
• Boyhood (1997) 
• Youth (2002).

Tayeb Salih:

Tayeb Salih used to have a long and successful career as a Sudanese author, intellectual journalist, and UNESCO employee. Season of Migration to the North is considered one of the most important novels in Arabic writing.

Conclusion:

Often, postcolonial literature focuses on problems such as the political and cultural independence of formerly oppressed nations, and also racial and colonial attitudes. 

Many literary ideas have been produced by the problem. Literature is written by people from overseas who have rejected colonial rule was also included in this category. The concept "postcolonialism" has been used to characterize a number of different approaches to learning Western classics.

What is Neoclassical School of Thought l Neoclassical Period l Neoclassical Society l Origin of Neoclassical age

What is Neoclassical?

Neoclassical Art

In Greek, Neos means "new" while in Latin, "Classicus" denotes "related to ancient Greek or Latin ideas of artistic expression." Neoclassicism was an anti-individualism and anti-violation of classical laws and legislation movement. Classicalists aimed to restore ancient standards in writing and other arts.

   

Key Highlights

• Fights for Power and Religion
• Spirituality and Feelings
• The Age of Pleasure
• The Middle And lower classes Emerge
• The Age's Spirit
• The Market for Educational achievement
• Literary Styles

Background:

The Pseudo-classical or Neo-classical era in English history from 1700 to 1798 may be split into two parts: Early in the century (1700-1740), Pope was the major poet and literary character, whereas later in the century (1740-1798) Dr. Johnson was its leading literary figure. During this time period, England had Queen Anne and three Georges who kept the throne of England.

He calls it "our magnificent and important 18th century" since it witnessed the birth of the political essay and novel and the modern prose form. 

Fights for Power and Religion

The establishment of the Whig and Tory parties dates back to Charles I's reign. Although in the 18th century, the party atmosphere was prominent. Everybody was a Tory or a Whig. Each party desired literary support, and the writers gained reputation and significance. Eventually, they managed to break free of the wealthiest and most powerful's influence. "The authors made the most of the golden time of political pamphleteering." The Puritans hated the aristocracy, and the courtiers disliked the puritans.

Spirituality and Feelings:

Spirituality is the greatest example of this rebirth of feeling. Pope's religion was artificial, materialistic, and un-spiritual. The preachers no longer attempted to influence by explanation, but rather moved by feelings. They no longer cared about dignity and accuracy; they taught with deep love. The era's sentimentalism comes in many forms.

Religious Prayers

The Age of Pleasure:

The neoclassical era is best described by ‘complacency' rather than ‘façade.' Comfort was valued in this era. The British felt politically invincible, leading to an attitude of intellectual and moral dominance. For the first time, magazines include ads for home design, fashion, and furniture. The Baroque era begins. It becomes critical to dress in expensive clothes, get your hair and makeup was done by the top stylists, etc. Many had servants as parents but now in this age, they had servants. 

The Middle And lower classes Emerge:

The rise of the middle class in politics, life, and society is another key aspect of the age. The country's wealth and happiness have increased.

Wealthy Puritans

The Age's Spirit:

The first half of the 18th century saw a significant rise in social areas.   It was a period of compassion, moderation, and logical thinking, which focused to purify attitudes and introduce the principle of sweet rationality into existence. Even after the Whig oligarchy's fifty-year supremacy, the ideological power relationship was really enough to avoid violent party policies, whereas the established religion decided to pursue a peaceful middle ground.

The Market for Educational achievement:

These developments impacted literature greatly. Diaries, letters, and journals were prominent categories, frequently read alone in a private reading room.  But with a more complex society, major types like newspapers, novels, popular ballads, and theatre would also gain a broader audience. 

Literary Styles

An everlasting mark was established on the Age of Pope writings by the political and social shifts that indicate the superiority of reason and logic, rationality, and a total lack of interest. "The same temperament characterizes the writing of the era, which demonstrates a comparable harshness and lack of emotion, and a similar inclination toward shallowness in thinking and formality in language. No creative energy or emotion is expressed in this work; instead, it is an intellectual work with humor and fancifulness. It sacrifices simplicity and spontaneity in order to maintain a high standard for accuracy.

Conclusion 

In the Age of Enlightenment and the classical period, neoclassicism was formed out of a desire to return to the many forms and spirits of ancient antiquity.

History of Puritan Age and Introduction of Puritan Age l Puritan Age Writers l Major Figures and Works of the Puritan Age

Introduction: The 17th century, often known as Milton's Age, is a significant era in the history of English literature because it encompasses two major historical eras. 

Beginning in 1603 with James I, known as the sub-period of Jacobean, it lasted until 1625 under Charles I, known as the sub-period of Caroline, which lasted until 1649 under Charles II. 

New ideas, analysis, and observation were encouraged throughout this time period since it was a period of innovation and exploration for mankind.

Because of Milton and Cromwell's fight for liberty, a Civil War erupted in these days owing to numerous oppressive royal laws, including the declaration of Devine Right of the Kings in 1604. Cromwell took control of the government when Charles I was executed in 1649, ending his oppressive rule. Numerous modifications have been made, particularly in legislation and parliament, throughout the Commonwealth period.

Puritan-era genres include the following: Drama, poetry, and prose were popular forms of writing throughout the Puritan era, with poetry being the most popular.

Metaphysical Poetry: This new school of poetry was composed in the seventh century and included writers who used exaggerations, farfetched similes, and distinct metaphors to set themselves apart from earlier generations of poets. They were a group of witty poets, with John Donne standing out among them. Romantic poets, intellectuals, and honest poets who were aware of religious issues, all belonged to this group.

Metaphysical Poets: 

John Donne (1537-1631)

He was the founder of the Metaphysical Poets' School, which was led by John Donne.

• Metempsychosis
• The Progress of the Soul
• An Anatomy of the World
• Epithalamium

Early works focused on romantic themes and love poems written in a realistic style.

Thomas Carew (1598-1639) :

He was also a member of this school and is most known for his renowned work, 'Persuasions of Love,' which has rhythmic cadence settings.

Richard Crashaw (1613-1649) :

He was another prominent member of this group, and he was most known for his work 'The Flaming Heart,' as previously said.

Abraham Cowley (1618-1667) :

Many readers liked Abraham Cowley's "Pindaric Odes," which he wrote between 1618 and 1667, and he was a major character in the metaphysical school.

Robert Herrick (1591-1674) : 

He was another member of this group and is well-known for his love poetry, particularly his philosophical love poetry. Lord Herbert of Cherbury, another member of this school, wrote under the influence of the metaphysical school.

The Metaphysical School of poetry includes writers like;

• Henry Vaughan (1622-1695) 
• Andrew Marvel (1621-1672)
• Edmund Waller (1606-1687)

The Cavalier Group of Poets:

Cavalier poets were poets who drew inspiration from Ben Jonson. They were composed in the classical style of Ben Jonson. Because Sir John Suckling (1609-1642) and Sir Richard Lovelace (1618-1658) were not genuine royalists, Cavaliers were not all royalists, as their label indicates. Lovelace's 'To Lucasta' and 'To Althea' were two of the most well-known poems in this collection.

John Milton (1608-1674) :

It was John Milton who was the age's poet and produced some of history's most notable poetry. He was the most famous Puritan poet of the time period, and he mostly wrote about himself and his religious beliefs. A religious poem he wrote while blind, 'Paradise Lost,' is among his most well-known works. It contains many of the high points of his personal life. The Hymn on the Nativity, composed in 1629 by a lyrical genius, was followed by "L'Allegro" and "Il Penseroso," both country poems, in 1632; "Lycidas," an elegy for the pastoral life; and "Comus," a lyrical tone poem, in 1634. To demonstrate how full of feelings this is, consider Milton's poem, "When the Assault was the Intended to the City."

Milton opposed King Charles I and sided with Oliver Cromwell in the fight for freedom. He composed "Paradise Lost" after these occurrences, which is all about Man's paths to God and about Paradise and Hell; "Paradise Regained" is debate poetry with Christ as the primary character. The drama 'Samson Agonistes' depicts his relationship with a blind hero as part of its story.

Youtube Lecture: Puritan Age 

Definition of Novel - Origin of Novel - 18th Century the Rise of Novel Major writers - Factors that Contributed to The Rise of the 18th Century Novel - BS English Subject introduction of Literature History of English Literature Semester 1 Punjab University

Today's novel is regarded as one of the most significant genres of literature in English. It influences great elements of language and is now an essential component of art. However, the development of the English novel was mainly in the 18th century, which does not indicate that before this period there was no kind of novel. It simply implies that the publication of novels and authors has risen throughout this time.

Definition of Novel

''Novel is an important fictional prose collection, in which persons and events are portrayed in a more or less complex history.''

''The novel is a colourful book about life.''

''Novel is a long-standing storey that is not actual historically, but may easily be true.''

Origin of Novel

The English name's novel originates from the Italian novella - something new. The novel was a sort of 14th-century tale. The novel that replaced poetry and theatre has been the most important component of the Victorian period in English literature.

An integral part of English literature is the English novel. To this moment, it has evolved in multiple styles and improvements. This novel is a prosaic work of art that focuses on the imagination of exploring people's unique interests through the interlinked events of a chosen person and setting. It is also a fictional genre that was a medium for entertainment, information, or a combination of the two. With this in mind, any piece of fiction, long enough to be adapted as a book, can be described as "newness." Since its creation, the novel has been adapted to include forms of romance, thriller, historical, picaresque, science fiction, psychological, gothic, epistolary, manners, etc. Richardson and Fielding's magnificent work was followed by two other great writers of the 18th century, Smollett and Sterne. Thus,  Fielding  Sterne, Richardson, and Smollett, the group of four early writers, are named the Four Wheels of the Novel.

Factors that Contributed to The Rise of  the 18th Century Novel

Rise of the middle class
The literature of the 17th century flourished under the patronage of the aristocratic classes. The history of society in England throughout the 18th century is characterized by the rise of the middle classes. With the growth of trade and commerce, the trade elite in England became wealthy, and this newly rich class also sought to excel in literature. This class was neglected by the native writers and their tastes and aspirations were mirrored in the novelists of this era. The novel was really the invention of the middle class. The middle-class rise was thus very inevitable. 

Newspapers and magazines
In the 18th century, a large number of middle-class readers emerged in newspapers and newspapers. These new readers had little interest in the romantic events and tragic occurrences captivated by the upper class. A new kind of writing that reflected the new ideals of the 18th century was needed and this new type of literature was nothing but novel.

Rise of Realism
Literature dating back to the 18th century characterized itself by the spirit of realism and romantic qualities like enthusiasm, passion, imagination, etc. The main characteristics of 18th-century literature were reason, intellect, precision, sardonic attitude, and so on. In an English novel, all these characteristics were given.

The role of women
Women of the upper and middle classes were allowed to participate in a variety of men's events in the 18th century. Although they could not engage in government, politics, hunting, party, etc but during their free time, they used to read literature.

Decline of drama
The decline in theatre also contributed to the novel's growth in the 18th century. Drama lost its prestige in the 18th century in the Elizabethan Age. It did not stay an important literary form. Some others were so to take their place and from 1740 A.D the English novel took its place. The decline of the tragedy thus brought the English novel into being.

18th Century  the Rise of Novel Major writers

Daniel Defoe

Defoe was born in London, England, in 1660. He became a trader and took part in many failed companies facing bankruptcy and hostile creditors. He was also a prolific politician who landed him for defamation in jail. Late in his life, Robinson Crusoe turned his writing into fiction and was one of the most widely read and influential novels ever. Defoe passed away in 1731.

Daniel Defoe Works

• Robinson Crusoe
• Moll Flanders: An Authoritative Text, Contexts, Criticism
• A Journal of the Plague Year
• The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe
• The Fortunate Mistress
• An Essay Upon Projects

Jonathan Swift 

Irish novelist, clergyman, and satire Jonathan Swift was born on November 30, 1667. He earned his bachelor's degree from Trinity College under the supervision of his uncle and subsequently worked as a state assistant. He eventually became dean of Dublin's St. Patrick's Cathedral. Most of his texts have been published under pseudonyms. For his 1728 novel Gulliver's Travels, he is most known.

Jonathan Swift Works

• A Modest Proposal
• A Tale of a Tub
• The Battle of the Books
• A Journal to Stella
• Drapier's Letters
• Gulliver's Travels

Samuel Richardson 

He was (1689, 1761), an English writer who extended his creation and usage of the letter form ('epistolary novel'), to exploit the dramatic potential for the book. Pamela (1740) and Clarrisa (1747–48) were his main books.

Samuel Richardson Works

• Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded
• Clarissa: Or, the History of a Young Lady
• The History of Sir Charles Grandison
• Becoming True Saviors of Men

Henry Fielding 

Born Apr 22, 1707, Sharpham Park, Somerset, Eng. Henry Fielding. He died Oct 8, 1754, Lisbon), writer and dramatist believed to be the creator of the English novel alongside Samuel Richardson. Joseph Andrews (1742) and Tom Jones are among his greatest books (1749).

Henry Fielding Works

• Tom Jones
• Don Quixote
• Amelia
• Joseph Andrews
• An Apology for the Life of Mrs. Shamela Andrews
• The Life and Death of Jonathan Wild, the Great
• A Journey from This World to the Next

Eliza Haywood

Eliza Haywood was an English author, performer, and editor.

Famous works of Eliza Haywood

• The history of Jemmy and Jenny Jessamy
• Fantomina
• Love in Excess: Or the Fatal Enquiry
• The history of Miss Betsy Thoughtless
• The invisible spy

Conclusion

In The Rise of the Novel, Ian Watt claimed that the novel started in the early 18th century,  Print innovations encouraged the novel's development. The only reason a novel exists is that it attempts to mirror life. The novel has become a major part of English literature.

The Augustan Age in English Literature - Origin of the term Augustan - Characteristics of the Augustan Age - Major Writers of the Augustan Age

Origin of the term Augustan 

The term "Augustan" refers to King George I desire to be associated with Augustus Caesar, the very first Roman Emperor, during a period when poetry and arts were promoted and admired and flourished. Anyone who has been educated in the 18th century would know the original texts because classical studies are a necessary element in the process of education.

Augustan Age

A remarkable characteristic of the literature of the 18th century is that it is mostly philosophical, logical, and reasonable. In this age, Emotion, creativity, and passion are clearly lacking. Therefore, writing of the 18th century is sometimes sarcastic. The dominance of logic, rationality, common sense and emotions, and passion are denied. The appearance is more emphasized than the actual meaning. Most of the writing of the 18th century is either sarcastic or educational. It is the principal result of intellect on the surface of existence. The poetry of this era was one of criticism of politics and the parody of individuals. The satires were both socially and personally political. Another key characteristic of the poetry of this era is that it deals mainly with city life instead of rural life or nature. The poets were limited to two lifetimes and aristocratic people in their quest for decency, reasonableness, grace, and mannerism. Poetry is primarily composed in literature and heroic couplets from the 18th century. This literary phrase is ideally suited to the closing Heroic couplet because of its epigrammatic compassion and sarcastic property.

Characteristics of the Augustan Age

The Political Time:

The Augustan era was the reign of Queen Anne in England at the beginning of the 18th century. The poet Alexander Pope, satire, essayists Joseph Addison, Jonathan Swift and the and Sir Richard Steele were among the most famous authors of this period.

The Style in Motions:

In this age, the approach emphasized common sense, balance, passion, and grace. The subjects of the study increased in quantity and in the 18th century systematically. And prose had become a versatile and valuable vehicle in England's prosperity.

Transitional Period:

Throughout this century, England led Europe in intellectual research. The rapid social development of England in the early 18th century was remarkable. For the first time, the art of coexistence was mastered. In a decade, nearly 2000 public coffee shops only emerged in London. This improved social status refined the language and manners of males.

Political Parties' Emancipation:

By 1700 (during the reign of Charles II), the Wing Party had been advocating personal independence, while the Tories were Jacobites.

The Spirit of the Age 

The Spirit of the Age was one of tolerance, restraint, and common sense. The explanation was accurately depicted in Swift, Steele, Addison, and Defoe's works.

Clubs and cafes:

The growing political involvement has increased the number of political organizations and cafes and inspired stylish and public life. In the first edition of 'The Tatler,' Steele announces that his new magazine will focus on clubs. In White's Chocolate House, you'll discover stories of gallantry and pleasure, poetry at Will's Coffee House, and learning in Grecian, foreign, and domestic news in Santiago.

Major Writers of the Augustan Age

Following are the major writers of the Augustan age;

 

Thomas Gray

Thomas Gray was the English author, poet, classics philosopher, and teacher at Cambridge Pembroke College.

• Thomas Gray Works
• On the Death of a Favourite Cat
• The Bard
• The Progress of Poesy
• The Fatal Sisters
• The Descent of Odin
• Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard
• On a Distance Prospect of Eton College

James Macpherson

The writer, poet, literature collector, and statesman James Macpherson was Scottish.

• James Macpherson Works
• Ossian Poems
• Fragments of Ancient Poetry Translated From Gaelic

William Collins

He was a poet from England who was an influential poet from the mid-18th century.

• William Collins Works
• Ode to Simplicity
• Odeon the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands of Scotland
• Ode to Evening

George Crabbe

George Crabbe was a poet, physician, and priest from England. He is most known for his initial use of the realistic style of narration and his portrayal of life and people in the middle and working class.

• George Crabbe Works
• The Borough
• Tales in Verse
• Tales of the Hall
• The Village
• The Parish Register

William Blake

In England, he was a poet, painter, and printer.

• William Blake Works
• Songs of Innocence
• Songs of Experience
• Poetical Sketches

Tobias Smollett

Tobias George Smollett was a Scotland writer and poet. His picaresque novels made him famous.

• Tobias Smollett Works 
• Humphry Clinker
• The Adventure of Roderick Random
• Peregrine Pickle

Henry Fielding

Henry Fielding was an English author and dramatist famous for his terrestrial sarcasm and humor.

• Henry Fielding Works
• Jonathan Wild the Great
• A Journey from this World to the Next
• Voyage to Lisbon
• Tom Jones
• Amelia
• The Adventures of Joseph Andrews

Samuel Richardson

He was an English writer and printer.

• Samuel Richardson Works
• Clarissa or The Adventures of a Young Lady Clarissa Harlowe
• Sir Charles Grandison
• Pamela or Virtue Rewarded

Edmund Burke

He was an Irish patriot, economist, and philosopher.

• Edmund Burke Works
• On Conciliation with America
• Reflection on the French Revolution
• Letter to a Nobel Lord
• Letters on a Regicide Peace
• Speeches on American Taxation

Richard Steele

He was an Irish novelist, playwright, and politician.

• Richard Steele Works
• The Tender Husband
• The Conscious Lover
• The Tatler
• The Guardian
• The Funeral
• The Lying Lover

Joseph Addison

He was an English writer, poet, playwright, and statesman.

• Joseph Addison Works 
• The Vision of Mirza
• Cato
• The Campaign
• Public Credit
• Rosamond
• The DRUMMER
• The Spectator

Jonathan Swift

He was a satirist, writer, English politician, and poet.

• Jonathan Swift Works
• Journal to Stella
• The Drapier’s Letters
• A Tale of a Tub
• Gulliver’s Travels
• Cadence and Vanessa
• The Battle of the Books

Daniel Defoe 

He was an English writer, trader, journalist, pamphleteer, and spy.

• Daniel Defoe Works
• Captain Singleton
• Journal of the Plague Year
• Roxana
• Colonel Jack
• The Memories of a Cavalier
• Robinson Crusoe
• Mall Flanders

Oliver Goldsmith 

He was a writer, poet, and playwright of English-Ireland.

• Oliver Goldsmith Works
• The Vicar of Wakefield
• The Hermit
• Elegy on the Death of a Mad Dog
• She Stoops to Conquer
• The Citizen of the World
• The Traveller
• The Deserted Village
• The Good-Natured Man

Samuel Johnson

He was the English writer, sometimes referred to as Dr Johnson, who was a permanent English literary writer, poet, playwright, essayist, moralist, critical, biographical, publisher.

• Dr. Samuel Johnson Works
• Preface to Shakespeare
• Raselas
• Prince of Abyssinia
• The Life of Savage
• The Vanity of Human Wishes
• London
• The Lives of the Poets
• The Adventurer
• The Idler
• Dictionary of the English Language
• A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland
• The Rambler

John Gay 

He was a poet and dramatist from England and a member of the Scriblerus Club.

• John Gay Works
• The Beggar’s Opera
• The Rural Sports
• The Streets of London
• The Shepherd’s Week
• Trivia
• Fables

Alexander Pope 

He was a poet and satirist from August and one of his greatest artists.

• Alexander Pope Works
• Dunciad
• Translation of Iliad and Odyssey
• The Lord Bathurst
• Pastorals
• Of the Knowledge and Characters of Men
• Of the Characters of Women
• An Essay on Criticism
• Windsor Forest
• The Rape of the Lock
• Satires and Epistles of Horace Imitated
• On the use of the Riches
• An Essay on Man
• Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot

Themes of The Augustan Age 

• Patriotism
• Love
• Nature
• Society
• Lack of Religion 
• Rational thinking

Conclusion 

The development of the printing press, inexpensive paper, literacy, and economic status has enabled many more people to read. During this period, literary styles appealing to a wide range of classes emerged, while arrogance in literacy began. Swift used the terms high and low frequency to describe his reading style and the prejudices of today. For the first time, authors' essays and biographies of famous people started to dominate the Traits and behaviors.

So you can see that this is a difficult time worth studying. It impacted our literary tastes and aspirations in many ways.

The Age of Restoration Drama - Themes of the Restoration Age - Characteristics of Restoration Drama - Famous Writers of Restoration Drama - BS English Subject introduction of Literature History of English Literature Semester 1 Punjab University

Outlines of Restoration Drama 

• Background of Restoration Drama
• Themes of the Restoration Age
• Characteristics of Restoration Drama
• The Heroic Tragedy of Restoration Age
• Characteristics of Heroic Tragedy Drama
• Characteristics of Comedy of Manners 
• Role of Ben Jonson in Comedy of Manners 
• The Restoration comedy Influences 
• Famous Writers of Restoration Drama
• Conclusion

Background of Restoration Drama

King Charles II's restoration in 1660 to the throne of England brought about a fresh shift in English literature. Closed theatres have previously been reopened. New groups of authors started to create plays.
During the restoration era, we also saw some progress in prose work. John Dryden published an essay on dramatic poetry, his scholarly effort. Dryden contrasts British drama with French drama in this book. He highlights the limits of French theatre and believes that English drama is better than French drama. He wrote it in a straightforward, fair, and balanced manner. His reputation as a critic is significant too.

John Bunyan authored two books, The Pilgrims' Progress, and The Holy War. The first metaphorical tale depicts the hard trip to the city of Christian. Her greatest metaphor is 'life is travel.' Some phrases and languages have been taken from this book and are widely used in everyday speech, such as Vanity Fair, Slough of Despond, and Mr. Great Heart. In the second book, he recounted his own civil war experience. Bunyan is a straightforward and simple example of writing prose.

The writing of John Locke likewise was plain, serious, and unorned, but it lacked balance in its phrases, which charms Bunyan's style. But Locke's essay on human comprehension is one of English philosophy's most important works. It was a new way of thinking, not just in England but in other European nations.
The renowned journal of Samuel Pepys is also regarded prose. Until 1852, his journal could not be read because it had been written in hidden signs. It gives an image of the social life of that time and details certain events of that time. His diary is very interesting and colorful. It presents itself as a hero.

Themes of the Restoration Age

• Moderation
• Realism 
• Reason 
• Marriage 
• Game of love
• Social conflicts 
• Political Conflict
• Politics
• Faith
• Rejection of Puritanism
• Social Conventions

Characteristics of Restoration Drama

• During the Puritan Age, theatres were shuttered. 
• During the Restauration Age, new plays and performances were reopened, which were distinct from the previous ones.
• The indoor theatres were significantly smaller than that of the Elizabethan theatres. 
• They had no platform, but there had a picture frame stage with various scenes. 
• The illumination was artificial and the performers were entering from the side.
• The audience was from the middle and high classes. Most of the elements of the restoration drama are still visible today.
• The popularity of the restoration plays depended on the odd arrangements, unusual storylines, and dramatic language.
• There was just commercial rather than the creative element of producing theatre.
• Earlier Elizabethan works such as King Lear had a joyful conclusion.
• The theatres with a leaning stage were given the form of horseshoes, encouraging more people to watch the play.

The Heroic Tragedy of Restoration Age

The tragedy of restoration is also called the Heroic tragedy. The impact of French romance and theatre resulted initially in the shape of the heroic play. With respect to Restauration Tragedy, the classical formal element already existed with Ben Johnson, with heroic elements, frequently in Fletcher and Massinger, and even in Shakespeare. Coriolanus in Tamburlaine is a character of heroic tragedy. Viola's a heroic lady Viola's a heroic lady. 

Characteristics of Heroic Tragedy Drama

The tragedy of restoration is fictitious. Its feelings are unreal. According to Dobree the crazy concepts of courage, the ridiculous conceptions of the unthinkable love of Tragedy.  Restauration —does not represent reality. It focuses on the struggle between love and honor. John Dryden was the Heroic Tragedy's main writer. His notable dramas are Tyrannic Love, Granada Conquest, and Love All. Dryden has a hero of superhuman abilities and superhuman principles, an extraordinary heroine of grace and devotion, an inner struggle in the mind of many characters between both love and honor, and a passionate and dramatic tale of combat and martial passion. All For Love is this period's best tragedy. Thomas Otway was another playwright. He authored Venice Preserved, , Don Carlos, The Orphan, and Alcibiades.

Characteristics of Comedy of Manners 

Restauration Comedy is also called Comedy of Manners. These plays represented a response against puritanism and sexual restriction. Designed romances, sex, wedding, and adultery have been handled with cynicism, worldly wit, and a sense of humor. The characters certainly paid a great deal to the brokers, witnesses, and men of the city as well as to fashion women, residents, spouses, and rural females.

Role of Ben Jonson in Comedy of Manners 

The Comedy of Manners mirrors Ben Jonson's writings. That's realistic. The basic objective of this comedy is to expose the ways of the higher classes of society. They are shown with unemotional honesty. The polished aristocratic society it portrays is trendy. It does reveal "follies literally," but these are the follies of educated gentleman rather than "low people." Everything is rude and nasty.

It portrays a tiny universe with a unique area.   The public gardens, elegant clubs, pubs, and drawing chambers of the Aristocracy and the luxury elites of the period offer its background. Sex is handled quite frankly. The personal connection between men and women is his primary topic. The people of the day saw love as a completely personal issue, marriage as a societal achievement.

The Restoration comedy Influences 

The Restoration comedy was influenced by French and local elements. It was inspired by the indigenous tradition which lasted before the theatre closure in 1642. It was also inspired by continental authors, Moliere and Spaniard in particular. It accurately represented the loutish short life of the era. There was a spiritual community that led to an interest in French humor. Moliere provided great ideas for stories and superb instances of comic characterization to the English playwright.

Famous Writers of '' Restoration Drama''

William Congreve:

Congreve once channeled the humor in its own way. He authored few comedies: 

• The Old Bachelor
• The World Way
• 'The 'Way of the World

These were the flower of the comedy of Restauration. The storyline of comedy is well constructed and love moments between Mirabelle and Millamant are dealt with great delicacy and tenderness. It constantly improves the building and grasping of characters with each play. However, he demonstrated his potential for height and conversation from the very beginning. Congreve addresses a significant issue of sexual interactions via a range of people and events across the globe. He displays the age's loves and plots and sexual hypocrisies, yet between Millament and Mirabelle there is genuine love. The next scenario displays his wife and his logical love and marital mentality. The power of freshly created English writing is also found here.

Sir John Vanbrugh 

Vanbrugh and Farquhar kept some of the spiritual restoration comedy of manners following Congreve alive. Mostly three comedies were written by Vanbrugh:

• The Relapse
• The Provoked Wife
• The Confederacy

Vanbrugh's plays lack Congreve's beauty and grace but are full of energy and brilliant humor. His works are excellent in structure, portrayal, and dialogue and he has a pure talent for comical situations.

George Farquhar (1678-1707):

Farquhar created seven plays with the stamp of his cheerful and humorous nature. His greatest work is in his final two plays:

• The Recruiting Officer
• The Beaux Stratagem 

The final spiritually unfailing play is his personal and three open-air atmospheres, which gives him a unique position in the drama of the restoration.

Sir George Etherege 

Sir George Etherege was a playwright from England. He has left three comedies;

• Love in the Tub
• The Comical Revenge
• The Man of Mode

It addresses a certain kind of individuals who appear to live the surfing act of life. The discourse is full of Etherege's talk about morality rather than method. His plays have no social critique inherent in Moliere's humor. Historically, he is significant since he helped establish the restoration comic style.

William Wycherley 

Wycherley turns in a refreshing unique kind the comedy of plot and style. His famous work is based on his four comedies, 

• Love in a Wood
• The Gentlemen Dancing Master
• The Country Wife
• The Plain Dealer. 

Wycherley strikes the reader with the pure spirit of language and characterization intensity. He possesses Johnson's first satirical power. "The plain dealer" mood is that of the puritan and not the Restoration comedy of ways.

Conclusion

It must be acknowledged, however, that the society in which the Restoration comedy reflected itself was a hopeless idealist. If we criticize the Restauration Court society, the dramatists of that time cannot be condemned. In these comedies, there is an atmosphere of carelessness and wickedness which beyond the limits of humanity and good taste. But these plays have the ability to extend and this gift has been especially refreshing in the face of increasing emotional and moral activity. All literary lovers have a lasting attraction in the great wit, the clever conversation, and the funny languages it produces. More on Classical comedy must not be examined in the light of current ideas but in the spirit of the time in which they have been produced. The comedies restore their pictures of gallants and beauties true to life to a genuine portrayal of their society.

Definition of Neoclassicism - Introduction to Neoclassical Age - Feature of Neoclassical Age - Characteristics of The Neo-Classical Age - Major Writers of The Neoclassical age - BS English Subject introduction of Literature History of English Literature Semester 1 Punjab University

Outlines of Neoclassicism

• Definition of Neoclassicism
• Introduction to Neoclassical Age
• Feature of Neoclassical Age
• Characteristics of The Neo-Classical Age
• Major Writers of The Neoclassical age

Definition of Neoclassicism

First of all, the origin of the term neoclassicism must be known. The phrase Neoclassicism has two words: ''Classic and Neo ''.  The word classic refers to the styles and works of the old writers of Greece and Rome. while the word neo comes from the ancient Greek word ''Neos'' meaning new or youthful.As per the Webster dictionary. We have the definition of Neoclassicism as the renaissance and revival of classicism to combine these terms. Neoclassicism is thus the trend in English literary history which put great focus on reviving the classical spirit from 1680 to 1750.

Introduction to Neoclassical Age

This period is referred to as the Neoclassical or Pseudo-Classical Period to denote the artificiality with which the authors of this period wrote. They were inspired by ancient Greek and Roman literature and culture. For nearly every literary form, Neoclassicists do have established laws and rules. Prose should be accurate, straightforward, flexible, and fluent. Poetry should be lyrical, epic, educational, satirical, or dramatic and its principles should be directed by each class. Drama should be presented in the Heroic Couplets; consistency should be followed and characters must be portrayed instead of specific stories.

The Enlightenment Movement has revived interest in the literature of ancient classical classics. This trend is called neoclassicism. As per the Neoclassicists, all kinds of writing should be modeled on the classical work of the ancient Greek, Roman, and current French authors. They thought that artistic goals should be structure, reason, limited passion, and purity and that the usefulness of the literature to mankind should be evaluated. This idea drove them in their literary representations to seek balance, unity, harmony, and elegance in order to entertain, educate and correct humankind, mostly as animals. Thus evolved a civilized, urban, humorous, and intelligent art.

Feature of Neoclassical Age

• Writers of this era were lacking in creativity and in accordance with old Ancient Greek and Roman traditions.
• Instead of creativity or natural talent, much emphasis is given to technical excellence.
• Humans are provided the importance and values. The literary goal of the period is "art for the benefit of mankind," not "art for the sake of art.
• More emphasis is given to the general characteristics of human beings than to the particular attributes.
• Intellect is stressed in thinking and manner.

Characteristics of The Neo-Classical Age

Influence of Materialism

So when Pope proclaims man's limitations, he also implies artist's limits.

“Know yourself, do not examine God.”

Man is the appropriate study!”

But Pope simply repeats prevailing intellectual ideas. After the Renaissance, Materialism and Empirical Science dominated the Neo-classical era. Philosophers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Joseph Butler influenced dominant thinking.

Empiricism, as exemplified by Bacon, Hobbes, and Locke, was supported by the development of empirical knowledge. Empirical philosophy and experimental science influenced authors of the era to limit their view of man and life. Men's concerns, politics, morality, and manners became important. Although political concerns were prevalent in Shakespeare's day, their response was idealistic and romantic. But the treatment of Neoclassical authors was rational.

Imitation of Classics

One of the most significant characteristics of Neoclassical writing is its mimicry of Greek and Roman classics.

While Renaissance authors drew inspiration from the classics rather than imitating their models, Neoclassical writers rigidly followed the validity of their models. Dryden, Pope, Swift, and Johnson were believed that the Roman authors of ancient had achieved excellence and purity in literary art and that they could only imitate their models.

Nature Concept

The Neo-classical notion of nature was equally significant. They never meant the natural nature, but the broader human character. The universal human nature was defined by Homer and Horace, not by common men and women. They believed that human nature was unchanging and conventional, the same in all men and all eras, as their They believed that human nature was unchanging and conventional, the same in all men and all eras, as their

Concept of Man

The Neo-classical literature sees man as a powerless creature.

Many satires and works of the time criticize man's arrogance and urge him to be satisfied with his limited knowledge.

Literature Forms

The essay, in both poetry and prose, was the most renowned Neo-classical literary genre.

During the era when the play collapsed and nearly vanished, the novel began.

The literature was mainly satiric and humorous. The age's major failing was causing catastrophe.

Major Writers of The Neoclassical age 

Alexander Pope 

Alexander Pope was a poet and satire who lived during the Augustan era and was considered to be one of the time's finest creative representatives.

Works of Alexander Pope 

• The Tattler 
• The Spectator
  
• The Pastorals
• The Essay on Man
• Essay on criticism 
• Rape of the Lock

Jonathan Swift

Jonathan Swift is a writer and musician who lives in New York City. He was an Anglo-Irish novelist and satirist who is generally considered as the greatest prose satirist in the English language. He was born in London and raised in Ireland. Essays, poetry, pamphlets, and a book were among the works he produced.

Works of Jonathan Swift 

• The Drapier's Letters
• The Tale of a Tub
•  Battle of the Books
• The Journal to Stella
• An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity
• The Directions to Servants
• The Gulliver's Travels
• The Modest Proposal

Samuel Johnson

The English writer Samuel Johnson, also known as Dr. Johnson, was a dramatist, essayist, and poet. He was also a literary critic, moralist, and biographer, who made a great number of contributions to British literature in a variety of genres. He was a devoted Anglican who also happened to be a staunch Conservative.

Works of Samuel Johnson

• Preface to Shakespeare
• Selected Essays
• Selected writings
• The Life of Mr. Richard Savage
• Prince of Abissinia The History of Rasselas
• The pretending or vanity of Human Wishes
• Irene
• The Idler
• Lives of the Most important Eminent English Poets by Samuel johnson

Oliver Goldsmith

Novelist, dramatist, and poet Oliver Goldsmith was born in Belfast, Northern Ireland.

Works of Oliver Goldsmith

• An Elegy on the Death of a Mad Dog
• Essays and The Bee
• The Vicar of Wakefield
• The Deserted Village
• The Traveller
• The Citizen of the World

Conclusion:-

That's the neo-classical era which has a great effect on the rapid change of social area, Alexander pope, Oliver goldsmith, and Jonathan had played an important role in this age. Thus, for the fast social development in England, the first part of the 18th century is outstanding because of the Neoclassical age. The 18th century displays a little Renaissance, which affected almost all of Europe. The growth in prosperity and luxury matched with the overall rise of the human intellectual level.  

Definition of Age of Reason - English literature in Age of reason - Role of Poetry in the Age of reason - Role of Poetry in the Age of reason - Famous writers of Age of Reason - Age of Reason Themes - BS English Subject introduction of Literature History of English Literature Semester 1 Punjab University

Outlines Age of Reason

• Definition of Age of Reason

• English literature in Age of reason

• Role of Poetry in the Age of reason

• Role of Poetry in the Age of reason

• Famous writers of Age of Reason

• Age of Reason Themes

Definition of Age of Reason

''During the 17th and 18th centuries, it was a philosophic and intellectual movement that influenced the realm of ideas in Europe, particularly in France.''

While the Enlightenment took place in North America And Europe throughout the 18th century, it was in Europe that new respect for reason and scientific knowledge — rather than religion — as a way of understanding the world and our position in it was born. Because logic and rationality were held in such high regard throughout the Age of Reason, the period generated a great quantity of nonfiction, including poems that connected with the subject of reason. People could not see the use in inventing worlds that were not connected to life; yet, literary scholars contend that this time gave birth to the novel, which came on to be very popular in the next century and continues to be till this day.

English literature in Age of reason 

Bringing Back the Greeks
This regeneration of traditional culture, known as 'neoclassicism,' was a result of the obsession with the reason in the Enlightenment and was not only reflected in poetry, but also in rhetorical and formal writing. Philosophers and writers were more and more interested in Roman and Greek writings of language and politics and numerous classical references were added in their writings, including Swift and Wheatley. Writers were more concerned with the purity of speech and standardized language than their Renaissance ancestors, who were exploring the language more artistically.

Critical literature
Writers often used satire during this period to criticize excessive authority or other social evils. During this era, when people lost trust in divine intervention and providence, the idea of social justice and assisting the less fortunate grew significantly. Jonathan Swift, Voltaire, and Alexander Pope, also produced humorous pieces in large numbers, occasionally pamphlets – loosely page usually carrying political critique or ideas - which were a common kind of writing in the 1700s. Political parties paid for authors like Joseph Addison, Matthew, Richard Steele, and Jonathan Swift, Before writing pamphlets supporting party policies and ideas, many political and social views were spread in this manner.

Beginning of Novel in Age of Reason
In addition to the novel spreading throughout the Age of Reason, the contemporary novel was also born in this period. While discussion continues, whose book gets initial credit, many reviewers regard Samuel Richardson, who published "Pamela" and "Clarissa" epistolary novels, and Henry Fielding, who wrote "Tom Jones, Daniel Defoe's British novel "Robinson Crusoe."" are other early writers. Many of these books feature unambiguous and rational characters and language in a classic Enlightenment manner but contain a sense of emotional romance and class concerns about a novel from the 19th century.

Age of Reason Themes 

• Individualism, as well as skepticism, are encouraged.
• scientific rationalism is a way of thinking that is based on facts and evidence.
• The supremacy of logic and reason over superstition and religious belief.

Role of Poetry in the Age of reason

Rational Poetry
Many Enlightenment poets praised reason in their writing, such as in "An Essay on Man" by Alexander Pope, which rejects supernatural interference and proclaims the fundamental goodness of humanity rather than superior divinity. Later in the poem, Pope asked, "What else can we argue upwards, or from the bottom?'' and put the ultimate authority for information, including God's knowledge, upon human reason. Phillis Wheatley, the American slave, and poet, Anne Finch, Countess Winchelsea, both evoked their lyrical investigations of womanhood and enslavement. Wheatley and other poets often integrated formal schemes and rhythms into their writing, such as rhymic couplets, as well as classical forms such as church elegies and prologues, according to the Enlightenment's focus on reason.

Role of Joy and Teaching in Age of Reason

Reason has become more important to poetry than ever before in the age of Reason. But it wasn't the entire story. As usual, there was a dispute about the nature and correct use of poetry. The two major aspects of the discussion of the 18th century may be marked by the terms 'teaching' and 'joy.' The issue was whether poetry should mainly educate or delight us about the world.

All authors recognized both to be essential, but which one should be given to the other? 

What was the main aim or end of poetry in the age of reason?

Views of John Dryden 

Pope's predecessor, John Dryden, attempted this method to develop the connection between learning and pleasure: "Sweetness is the main, if not the only aim of poetry; education may be allowed but second; poetry only teaches as it pleases. Notice he's trying to keep his enjoyment preference. He begins by emphasizing "pleasure," but then retreats immediately and adds "education," and then appears to say that "delight" is vital because instruction is essential—which makes us question whether teaching is after all more significant.

Satire and Sentimental Poetry 

As said, the other two kinds of poetry most distinctive of the era are satire and sentimental poetry. Satire is an old style of rhetoric that plays with madness or immorality in order to fix mistakes. The issue with folly is that it is irrational. But Satire seeks to expose the mistake of foolishness and immorality not through argument, but by mocking.

Rape of the Lock as a Satire 

Pope's "The rape of the lock" is probably the most renowned satire of the era. It's a lengthy poem about a young woman's fury to have her hair locked out by a suitor who's angry since she's beaten him in a card game. The poem is based on the reduction of hair locks into rape and the presentation of rape in an epic military struggle, basically saying "are you not crazy in throwing your future riches and happiness into the hair lock?."

Although satire makes use of exaggeration and ridicule, it nevertheless helps the target of satire to laugh at itself on the road to reason.

Famous writers of ''Age of Reason'' 

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau
• Voltaire 
• Alexander Pope
• Oliver Goldsmith
• George Crabbe
• Dr. Samuel Johnson 
• William Blake 
• Walter Scott
• Jane Austen  

Conclusion 

In the realm of Literature, the Age of Reason examined the age of fresh innovations in the field of philosophy. It has provided completely new ways of thinking and processing information in order to comprehend reality and realize the significance of scientific knowledge in comparison to religion and false beliefs.

Who were Cavalier Poets l Origin of Cavalier - Cavalier Poets - Characteristics of Cavalier Poetry - Cavaliers Poets and the Sons of Ben - Difference between Cavalier Poets and The Roundheads - BS English Subject introduction of Literature History of English Literature Semester 1 Punjab University

Outlines of Cavalier Poets

• Who were Cavalier Poets

• Origin of Cavalier

• Cavalier Poets

• Characteristics of Cavalier Poetry

• Cavaliers Poets and the Sons of Ben

• Difference between Cavalier Poets and The Roundheads

Origin of Cavalier 

It was during the English Civil War that Cavalier was originally used, by the Roundheads, to insult the wealthy royal supporters of King Charles and his son, King Charles the second of England.

The word "Cavalier" refers to a literary trend that blossomed between 1625 and 1649. Thomas Carew,  Robert Herrick, Sir John Suckling, and Richard Lovelace were the main authors of Cavalier (1618-1657). The Cavaliers were characteristically educated, cheerful and polite. Their works usually celebrate everyday and sometimes banal elements of everyday life.
 

Cavaliers Poets as Sons of Ben or The Tribe of Ben
Sometimes the poets of Cavaliers, known as the "Tribe of Ben or the Sons of Ben, realizing their obligation to Ben Jonson, also had a major influence on John Donne's works of Cavaliers. Petrarch obviously informed Lovelace and Carew. The Cavalier were royalists from the political point of view who supported Charles I in the civil war while Roundheads were the supporter of Cromwell. Three of the writers, John Suckling, Richard Lovelace, and Thomas Carew had been battling for King Charles I of England. Herrick wasn't a courtier but a priest from Anglica. The interpretations of ancient Latin forms by Jonson had a significant impact on his work.

In general, the Cavaliers' light-hearted poetry and play have not favored contemporary critics who prefer more serious work.

The difference between Cavalier Poets and The Roundheads

The Roundheads joined the House of Parliament in England. Many people living in New England associated with the Roundheads — those who fought for Oliver Cromwell and against the crown.

Carew, Suckling, Robert, and Lovelace are the major poets of Cavalier. While Cavaliers was wearing fantastic clothing and long hair. On the other side, the Roundheads were pure and wore large, conical caps, white ties, and dark clothing.

Characteristics of Cavalier Poetry 
Following are the Characteristics;

 

Cavalier Poetry 

Cavalier's poetry in its topic is distinct from conventional poetry. Instead of dealing with topics such as religion, philosophy, and the arts, cavalier poetry seeks to convey the pleasure of celebrating things much more lively than those of their ancestors' conventional works. 

Purpose of Cavalier  Poetry 

Their aims were frequently to favor the king (especially Charles I), and cavalier writers spoke against the roundheads who favored the Parliament's revolt against the crown. Most of the works of the cavalier were metaphorical and/or classical. 

Cavelier Poets Influence 

They were influenced by the poetic abilities of  Horace, Cicero, and Ovid's wisdom. They were able to create poetry through the use of these resources that pleased King Charles I. The Cavalier poets struggled to create literature where enjoyment and morality flourished. 

Status of Cavelier Poets 

They were wealthy and pleasant in comparison to the ancients. In cavalier poetry, there are definitely common characteristics in most poems "celebrating beauty, love, nature, sensuality, drinking, good company, honor and social life."

Cavalier Poets and Monarch 
Cavalier poets undoubtedly wrote in support of the monarch for the promotion of loyalist ideals, but their themes went deeper. The poets of Cavalier wrote in order to promote the day and the possibilities offered to them and their parents. They wanted to reveal themselves in society and to become the best they can within the limits of that culture. 

Themes of Cavalier Poetry

For Cavalier authors, this encouragement of enjoying life to the full meant acquiring financial riches and having sex with women. These topics led to the poetry's victorious and vexing tone and attitude. Platonic love also was another feature of cavalier poetry, where the male would show a lady his heavenly Love, where she would be adoring herself as a wonderful creature. As such, praise of women's qualities was often heard as if they were heavenly.

Civil war and the Cavalier Poets
The poetry of Cavalier is intimately connected to the Royalist cause since their poetry was mostly intended to praise the monarch. This often groupes cavalier poetry into a political genre of poetry. While the majority of the poetry produced by these cavalier poets in one way advocates the monarchy, not all the authors we label cavalier poets today realized they were categorized in their lives. Cavalier's poetry started to be identified as a genre with the start of the English Civil War in 1642 when individuals started to write for the monarch. However, writers like Thomas Carew and Sir John Suckling died before the war started but still are classed as rider poets for their poetry's political character. When the struggle between the king and the rebellious parliament started, the poetry's substance was considerably more focused on defending royalist values. These men were seen by many to write in a nostalgic tone, in that their work supported the philosophical and, ultimately, literal monarchy ideas and practices.

Conclusion 
The reign of Charles I was celebrated among the cavalier poets. In particular, Jonson valued common sense, responsibility, restraint, ownership, and elegant ideas. These concepts belonged not to the ancients, but to the courtyard and England. Although the cavalier accepted the traditional methods of thinking, they also infused their own views and ideas into their poetry. That applied their works to the period in which they wrote and also depicted the grandeur of the monarchy and of Charles.

The Age of Milton in English Literature l Characteristics of Milton's age in literature - The Metaphysical Poets - Major writers of Milton's Age - John Milton Contribution in English Literature - BS English Subject introduction of Literature History of English Literature Semester 1 Punjab University

Milton's Age in English Literature 

The time from 1625 to 1675 is regarded as the puritan age, since Puritan ideals dominated throughout the period in England and also as John Milton (1608-1674) was the Puritan and he also dominated the age of Puritan that is why it is called the age of John Milton. However, The Puritans fought for justice and freedom.

The Age of Milton:
The main characteristic of Milton's age is the development of puritanism as a moral and social force. Wyclif's successors and Lollards supported pretty strict ideas of life and behavior and were labeled Puritans. Puritanism developed as a major national force during the reign of James I. It prevailed after the civil war with the victory of Oliver Cromwell. Puritanism's influence on English society and thinking was significant. Puritanism's moral and theological elements are blended with the Renaissance energy.

Milton's Life:
John Milton was born on 9 December 1608 in Bread Street, Cheapside, London. He received his training at St. Paul's School and Christ's College, Cambridge. He was kept out of bed by his books until midnight. He showed an uncompromising commitment to study. Milton thus became a brilliant scholar. He released his "Paradise Lost" in 1667. In 1671, he also wrote Paradise Regained and Samson Agonists. Milton passed away on 8Nov.1674.

Milton's Writings Fall Into Four Periods 

Following are Milton's writings periods;

The Time of the College: 

It ended on the 1632 Cambridge Career. 

The late Poetic Period:

It is the period of prose works and the period from which he had been mostly accomplished. Milton mourns the late death of his college buddy Edward King in 'Lycidas.' It's an elegy of rural life.

The Period of Horton: 

Closing the era of his prose from 1640 to 1660 for the Continent in 1638.

Milton's Poetry: 

Milton created the finest English poetry in "Paradise Lost." He showed his intellect strength and creative force in this masterwork. Milton's Puritanism focuses on Eternal Purpose and justifies the method of God to mankind. The inspiration and subject matter of this poem originate from Milton. "Paradise Lost," Milton puts out Satan's rebellion against God, the battle in heaven, the fall of the rebels, world and man creation, Eve's and Adam's temptation, and eviction from Eden. He presents the divine cleansing activity. "Samson Agonistes" the dramatic poem crowns the labors of the concluding years. Milton uses the ideas of Greek tragedy in "Paradise Lost.'

Milton's Poetry Characteristics: 

Milton is the finest English poet after Shakespeare. We have a magnificent combination of intellect strength and artistic force in him. He is the greatest of English poets. He is unmatched in magnificent style, the grandeur of thought, and diction. His descriptive power is really good. The discussion in the council of the fallen angels demonstrates Milton's remarkable insight into motivation and character in the opening volumes of 'Paradise Lost.' The whole poem has an intensity of uniqueness. His tremendous elegance of style and versification is remarkable in the technical aspect of his poetry. Milton continues to be our best master.

The Metaphysical Poets of School 

''Johnson created the term "metaphysical." The metaphysical poets were learned, men. They did not copy nature or life. Their thinking is fresh. Their art is full of affections, stupidities, far-sighted similarities, etc. Johnson believes metaphysical poetry is "a deliberate departure from nature in seeking something new and unusual. Richard Crashaw, Henry Vaughan, John Donne, Herrick, Thomas Carew,   George Herbert, and Lord Herbert of Cherbury were the metaphysical poets. Donne was the head of this school. They are termed metaphysical poets not because they are extremely intelligent, but because their poetry is full of ideas, exaggerations struggle over the meanings of words, learning, and distant symmetries and analogies.''

Contribution of other Poets in Milton's Age:

Following are the writers of Milton's age; 

Mr. Robert Herrick (1591-1674)

He composed both romantic and holy verses, but this is because of the poetry of the former kind, for which he is widely known. He has a great deal in common with the songwriters of Elizabethan, but Herrick is included in Donne's metaphysical school on account of his thoughtful imagination and a contemplative tone, particularly in his religious poetry.

Thomas Carew

The greatest writer of his era was Thomas Carew (1598-1639), on whom Donne had more effect. Although he lacks Herrick's spontaneity and freshness, he is superior to him in exquisite manufacture. In addition, although having the power and energy of the poetry of Donne, the verse of Carew is neither rough nor dark as that of the Master. His love persuasions are a beautiful beat of rhythm and harmony.

Richard Crashaw (1613-1649) 

He had a different temperament than Herrick or Carew. He was an essentially religious poet, and the Flaming Heart is his finest work. Although less creative than Herrick and inferior to Carew, Crashaw sometimes achieves the heights of exceptional brilliance in his poetry.

Henry Vaughan (1622-1695) 

He was also at home in the holy and mundane verses. Although the vigor of Crashaw is missing, Vaughan is more consistent and clear, calm and deeper.

George Herbert (1593-1633) 

He was the most well-read of all the poets of the metaphysical school, with the exception of Donne, of course. This is because his expression is clear and his ideas are transparent. There is both simplicity and genuine seriousness in his religious poetry. Mixed with the didactic tone, his poetry also has a tendency of petty comedy.

Lord Herbert of Cherbury :

He is inferior to his brother George Herbert as a poetry writer; nevertheless, he is best known as an autobiographical author. In addition, he was the first poet to employ the meter that Tennyson made famous in In Memoriam.

Abraham Cowley

He was a poet and essayist who produced poetry of a fancy, courtly character. He also converted the Pindaric ode to English poetry.

Characteristics of  Age of Milton 

Following are the main features of Milton's age;

Influence of Puritianism 

The impact of Puritanism upon English society and literature was tremendous. The spirit which it produced was magnificent and high yet it was also harsh and merciless. The Puritan’s honesty and uprightness are apparent but his fanaticism, Milton's moroseness, and the narrowness of his perspective and sympathies were terrible. In his over-enthusiasm to respond against existing injustices, he attacked the beautiful things of life, denounced science and art, disregarded the joy of beauty, which invigorates secular existence. Puritanism damaged human civilization and tried to confine human culture within the limited sphere of its own specific goals. It was deadly to both art and literature.

Puritanism created ambiguity in literature

The attitude of liveliness, of young power and energy, of romanticism and heroism which characterized Elizabethan literature, was noticeable by its absence. In the words of W. J. Long: “Poetry assumed new and striking shapes in Donne and Herbert, while prose became as gloomy as Burton’s The Anatomy of Melancholy. The spiritual melancholy which sooner or later fastens upon all authors of this era, and which is mistakenly linked to Puritan influence, is due to the falling apart of recognized norms in religion and governance. 

Want of Passion and Consistency

The literature of this time lacked concreteness and intensity. Shakespeare stands first and foremost for the actual facts of life; his words and phrases tremble with energy and thrill with fire. Milton is worried rather with fantasizing about life, his lines turn over the mind with louder majesty, now and again exciting us as Shakespeare appears to have done with the fine abundance of visionary, but more often trying to impress us with their intellectual ferment and power, than moving us by their gentleness and passion. Puritanism started with Ben Jonson, but it found its best writers expression in Bunyan. 

Want of the Spirit of Unity

Despite the variety, the Elizabethan literature was characterized by the sense of togetherness, which came from the great national pride of all classes, and their love and loyalty to the Queen who had a single-minded aim to pursue the nation’s prosperity. During this time James I and Charles II were opposed to the interests of the people. The nation was split by the battle for political and religious liberty, and the literature was as separated in spirit as were the battling groups.

The dominance of Critical and Intellectual Spirit

The analytical and intellectual attitude, instead of the romantic mood which reigned in Elizabethan literature, dominates the work of this time. W. J. Long writes: “In the literature of the Puritan age one searches in fruitless for passionate devotion. Even in the verses and love poems, an important, artistic character takes hold, and whatever love story argues itself is in form instead of in feeling, a wonderful and artificial embellishment of speech rather than the natural expression of a soul in which viewpoint is so pure and proud that poetry is its only expression.”

Decay of Drama

This era is notable for the decline of drama. The civil unrest and the strong resistance of the Puritans was the primary reason of the death of theater. The real theatrical output of the era was modest and unimpressive. The closure of the theatres in 1642 provided the last push to the growth of theater.

Conclusion

Thus the period was lacking in english literature, both in availability and types and in this regard, it stands in sad contrast with the period previously passed. The sun of the Elizabethan period had set and the darkness had fallen on the literary landscape in the Puritan age.